When was Flannery O'Connor's short story "Greenleaf" published?

Flannery O'Connor wrote Greenleaf in 1956 but didn't publish it until nine years later, in 1965, as part of her short story collection Everything That Rises Must Converge. As is typical of many of O'Connor's works, Greenleaf espouses a decidedly religious worldview as characters afflicted by obvious vice -- in this case, the proud and selfish Mrs. May -- experience divine retribution through chaos and violence. In Greenleaf, Mrs. Greenleaf prays that God "stab her [Mrs. May] in the heart," which transpires when the bull Mr. Greenleaf is trying to shoot, on Mrs. May's command, instead pierces her heart with its horn. In this epiphanous moment of violence and religious ecstasy, Mrs. May has "the look of a person whose sight has been suddenly restored but who finds the light unbearable." Arguably, the bull symbolizes Christ, offering redemption to a sinner through a moment of agony; for Mrs. May, being stabbed in the heart is a catalyst for enlightenment. 

What was the purpose of the Viking voyages?

The primary purpose of the Viking voyages and exploration was for trade.  Viking society depended heavily on trade.  Viking merchants sought to trade with people in both existing areas and new areas.  They traded a large variety of goods, especially with other merchants in Asia.  Ships sailed by Viking merchants traveled to many places in the world, both east and west.  Vikings had developed seaworthy ships, so they were able to travel farther than other explorers in that time.  This gave them an advantage in both trade and exploration.  

Some historians believe that the Viking explorers were also looking for more land to house some of their expanding population back home.  Evidence of Viking settlements can be found in many places today.  

Some Viking explorers wanted to discover new lands.  The Vikings explored Iceland, Greenland, and Newfoundland.  These were areas previously unexplored by Europeans.  

Could you provide a brief appreciation of "My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun" in Shakespeare's "Sonnet 130"?

"Sonnet 130" is a standard Shakespearean sonnet. It contains fourteen total lines, broken into three stanzas of four lines each with a couplet at the end. That is followed by a final couplet. The three quatrains are in an alternating ABAB rhyme scheme, and the final two lines rhyme with each other. That gives the entire sonnet the rhyme scheme of ABABCDCDEFEFGG. Each line of the poem contains ten syllables written in the iambic foot. That means each line of the poem contains five iambic feet. That is called iambic pentameter.  

As a final detail, the couplet of a Shakespearean sonnet usually offers a counter/ rebuttal to the previous twelve lines. That is true for this sonnet as well. Shakespeare goes through twelve lines of poetry describing how his lover's physical qualities are not anywhere close to a societal beauty standard. Her cheeks aren't rosy, her breath stinks, and her voice is awful, but the final couplet says that his love for her is as real and strong as love gets.  

How is Scout Finch innocent in To Kill a Mockingbird?

Throughout the novel, Scout portrays her childhood innocence in various ways. She does not recognize the meaning behind specific derogatory and explicit terms that she hears on an everyday basis. Scout is continually asking her father to explain phrases and words such as "nigger-lover" and "rape." Scout also naively believes everything Jem says. She fears her reclusive neighbor, Arthur "Boo" Radley, and refers to him as the "malevolent phantom." She also believes the false rumors that surround Boo. At the beginning of the novel, Scout lacks perspective and the ability to control her emotions. Atticus is continually reminding Scout to keep her composure and exercise tolerance throughout the novel. Scout is also not aware of the overt prejudice and hypocrisy that is prevalent throughout Maycomb's community. She does not understand the level of oppression African Americans face until she witnesses Tom Robinson's trial. As the novel progresses, Scout matures, and various characters, most notably Atticus, impact and aid in her moral development. 

How do Gram and Grim show love and care for Maxwell in Philbrick's Freak the Mighty?

Grim and Gram have had their grandson Max with them ever since their daughter was killed by her husband about ten years earlier. During this time, they have provided him with a room of his own, food, shelter, and love. First, Grim and Gram have always shown an interest in Max's education, which is one way to demonstrate that they care. For example, they actively participate in parent/teacher meetings and work with his teachers to help Max in his resource classes.

Another way that Grim and Gram show how much they love and care for Max is in Chapter 8. After Max is brought home from the Fourth of July celebration by the cops, he looks and smells like a mess because he ran into the pond with Kevin to escape bullies. Grim and Gram don't get mad at him. In fact, they give him ice cream and coffee to commemorate the occasion. Max responds by thinking the following:

"By the time I polish off the ice cream, Grim is handing me coffee in a china cup, from the set they never use" (42).

These gestures make Max feel loved and cared for because his grandparents are making a fuss over him. If they didn't care about him, they would just tell him to take a shower and go to bed. Not only that, but Grim and Gram discuss the bully situation with Max and spin it in a positive way to make Max feel better about everything. They never belittle him or make him feel stupid, even though he may feel that way on his own. 

Then, in Chapter 14, Max hears Grim and Gram arguing about whether Grim should protect the family from Killer Kane with a gun. Gram doesn't want her husband to use a gun; however, Grim shows his love for Max by saying the following:

"He fooled 'em . . . Just like he fooled Annie. Just like he fooled us once upon a time. Never again, though. That man tries to set foot in this house I aim to shoot him" (90).

Clearly, Grim and Gram love their grandson Max because they are willing to do whatever it takes to protect him from bullies and Killer Kane. Once Max is kidnapped, they never give up searching for him, either. Then, after Kevin dies, Grim and Gram are there for Max as he grieves and goes back to school. Max is lucky to have such great grandparents to look after him.

Is it important that Jonas sees the apple change in The Giver?

It is important that Jonas sees the apple change because it is his first indication that he is different and his community is not what it seems.

When Jonas is growing up, he believes what everyone in his community believes. He thinks the community is perfect, all citizens are happy, and Sameness ensures no one is ever uncomfortable. The strict rules and conformity are necessary to maintain the community’s structure and happiness. When Jonas sees the apple change, he realizes nothing is what it seems.

The apple changing is the first sign Jonas is different from others and that the community is hiding a secret. Jonas is the only one who notices anything unusual about the apple.  He sees it change when he is tossing it to his friend Asher.

But suddenly Jonas had noticed, following the path of the apple through the air with his eyes, that the piece of fruit had—well, this was the part that he couldn't adequately understand—the apple had changed. Just for an instant (Chapter 3).

Jonas asks Asher about it, but he notices nothing unusual about the apple. Jonas tries to bring the apple home, but he can’t see anything different about it. All that happens is that he is publicly chastised for hoarding food. The Speaker doesn’t mention him by name, but Jonas knows the Speaker is talking about him. That’s how it works in Jonas’s world. You conform, or else.

When Jonas turns Twelve, he finds out what the change was all about. At the Ceremony of Twelve, his number is skipped when he is supposed to be called for his assignment. He and the other audience members are told by the Chief Elder that he has been given an unusual assignment and has been selected Receiver of Memory. It is a job that requires special skills, personality traits, and one unique ability.

Finally, The Receiver must have one more quality, and it is one which I can only name, but not describe. I do not understand it. You members of the community will not understand it, either. Perhaps Jonas will, because the current Receiver has told us that Jonas already has this quality. He calls it the Capacity to See Beyond (Chapter 8).

Jonas realizes he does have this unique ability. He saw the apple change. He sees the faces of people in the crowd change. He learns through his training that this means he is susceptible to the memories. Only a very small percentage of people in his community are, and Jonas is one of them.

When he begins his training, Jonas finds out he is seeing color. No one else in his community does. The apple was red, and he was seeing its redness. When he receives memories, he starts to see all the colors. 

As extraordinary as it is to have a special ability no one else has, akin to a magic trick, the really important thing about Jonas and the apple is that it is the first time Jonas and the reader realize something else is going on behind the community’s perfect surface. The community is much darker than Jonas realized.  

As part of his training, Jonas begins to see the community's dark side and that another way of life is possible. It is the way of life he sees in the memories, a way of life that is not devoid of feelings and ruled by politeness. Jonas begins to doubt his community and is eventually forced to leave it.

What is the significance of the Kikongo word nommo and its attendant concepts of being and naming?

Adah explains that Nelson has taught her the Kikongo word nommo, meaning "word." It is the force that "makes things live as what they are" (page 209). Adah explains that this concept helps her understand herself and her twin sister, Leah. Though they came from the same egg and are identical, they are very different. The idea that a name creates one's existence helps her understand why she and her twin sister are so different. This concept also helps Adah understand why her father, Nathan Price, is a failure as a preacher in the Congo. She writes, "his failures are deficiencies with words" (page 213). He grows frustrated and speaks in what she refers to as "half-baked Kikongo," thereby alienating his audience because he doesn't understand that their names for things affect their conception of them and their reality. For example, in the Kikongo language, the word for "baptism" is very similar to the word for "terrify." Nathan has not concentrated on this difference, so he often gets it wrong. Therefore, the concept of naming is closely allied to the concept of being, and not understanding this concept means that Nathan will not understand the people he is preaching to.